hawsepipe-blog – Ian Watts

May 8, 2025May 8, 2025

Portuguese Civilian Maritime Rescues of Allied/Axis/Neutral Personnel in the Second World War

I have a pretty medal in my collection from Portugal – I have always considered it one of the more interesting ones I have. It has an Angel of Victory and the motto, “Reconhecimento da Nação” on the obverse. It is officially known as the “Medalha Comemorativa do Esforço dos Tripulantes da Marinha Mercante Durante a Guerra de 1939-1945” [Commemorative Medal for the Effort of Merchant Marine Crews During the War of 1939-1945] per the reverse.

Right after the Second World War, the Republic of Portugal promulgated Decree/Law 38515 of 19 November 1951 (in Government Gazette no. 241/1951, Series I of 1951-11-19) created a medal to commemorate the efforts of both crews of merchant ships of “high and distant sea” and fishing vessels during the 1939-1945 war. To be eligible for the medal, individuals must have been a crew member aboard a Portuguese vessel for at least one year, although the period of service was waived for those who were aboard when their vessel was attacked or sunk. The law stated that the medal was bronze and suspended from a green and red ribbon, and worn on the right breast. In 1970, the law was amended to provide a medal with the same obverse and a white and red moiré ribbon for (Decree 568/70 of 20 November 1970); on 9 August, the award of the medal ceased (Decree/Law 329/85 of 9 August 1985).

The perpetual joke among my children is that I am interested in sunk merchant marine Portuguese ships in Hawai’i. So, since I have a Portuguese Merchant Marine medal, and since the recipients of the medal could potentially have been involved in rescues of crew members of sinking ships, I thought that I’d do a little research on the topic. And I was quite surprised.

Portugal’s neutral merchant marine and fishing fleet conducted extensive rescues of Allied and Axis personnel during the Second World War, often under hazardous conditions. Below is a detailed account of key operations, vessels, and personnel involved.

Fishing and Auxiliary Vessels

White Fleet cod-fishing schooners: Assisted in rescues after U-boat attacks, though specific vessel names are rarely documented. These vessels had been painted white and marked as Portuguese to avoid attacks (although this neutrality was not always recognized).
Improvised naval flotilla (1941): Included merchant ships like Cubango (seaplane carrier) and trawlers mobilized for coastal defense and rescue operations. 1 5

Rescues by Civilian Portuguese Vessels 1939-1941

Portuguese Vessel	Date	Rescued Vessel (Nationality)	Survivors Rescued	Casualties (Rescued Vessel)
Carvalho Araújo (merchant)	7-Aug-1939	Manaar (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Ana I (merchant)	10-Jul-1940	Aghios Nicolaos (Greek)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Serpa Pinto (merchant)	8-Oct-1940	Antonios Chandris (Greek)	22	Not specified 2
Nyassa (merchant)	20-Mar-1941	Andaluzian (British)	23	Not specified 2
Gorgulho (merchant)	25-Apr-1941	Aurillac (unknown)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Angola (merchant)	4-May-1941	Wray Castle (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Mirandella (merchant)	7-May-1941	Queen Maud (unknown)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Ás de Paus & Pátria e Liberdade (merchant)	10-May-1941	Martin Pecheur (unknown)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Ganda (merchant)	23-May-1941	British Grenadier (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Tarrafal (merchant)	31-May-1941	Clan Macdougall (British)	85	Not specified 2
Malange (merchant)	15-Jun-1941	Djurjura (unknown)	Not specified	Not specified
Maria Terceiro (merchant)	19-Jun-1941	Empire Warrior (British)	Not specified	Not specified
Alferrarede (merchant)	14-Aug-1941	Lucrecia (unknown)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Labrador (fishing schooner)	?-?-1942	Delães (Portuguese)	Full crew	0 (Delães sank, crew saved)

Carvalho Araújo

Rescue of the British Cargo Ship Manaar (7 September 1939)

Event: On September 7, 1939, the Portuguese passenger/cargo liner Carvalho Araújo encountered a lifeboat carrying 16 Indian crewmen from the British cargo ship Manaar, which had been sunk hours earlier by German submarine U-38.

Rescue Details: The survivors were spotted adrift and picked up by Carvalho Araújo. Other survivors from Manaar were also rescued by the Italian ship Castelbianco and the Dutch ship Mars, with all survivors eventually landed in Lisbon.

Outcome: The rescued men were safely brought to Lisbon. The rescue was noted as the first by a Portuguese ship of the Second World War, occurring just days after the war began.

Casualties: Of Manaar’s crew, 7 of 63 died; the rest were rescued by the three ships.

Interesting Note: The rescue highlighted Portugal’s early humanitarian role, with Carvalho Araújo acting swiftly in the opening days of the Second World War to save lives regardless of nationality1.

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Alferrarede

Rescue of Lucrecia (7 July 1940)

Event: On July 7, 1940, the Portuguese merchant ship Alferrarede found survivors from the vessel Lucrecia, which had been sunk by belligerent action.

Rescue Details: The survivors, adrift in the Atlantic, were brought aboard Alferrarede and taken to safety. The event was reported in the Portuguese press as another example of the country’s maritime solidarity.

Outcome: Survivors were landed safely in Portugal.

Casualties: Not specified in available records.

Interesting Note: This rescue reinforced the pattern of Portuguese civilian ships providing aid to shipwrecked sailors, regardless of their flag1.

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Ana I

Rescue of Aghios Nicolaos (7 October 1940)

Event: On October 7, 1940, the Portuguese merchant ship Ana I rescued the crew of the Greek merchant vessel Aghios Nicolaos, which had been sunk by a German U-boat.

Rescue Details: The Greek sailors, exposed and adrift, were brought aboard Ana I and landed safely in Portugal.

Outcome: The entire crew was saved and returned to safety.

Casualties: Not specified.

Interesting Note: The rescue was acknowledged in Greek diplomatic channels, with thanks extended to the Portuguese for their humanitarian action1.

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Serpa Pinto

Rescue of Antonios Chandris (8 October 1940)

Event: On October 8, 1940, the Portuguese liner Serpa Pinto was en route to Brazil when it spotted distress signals from a lifeboat.

Rescue Details: Aboard were 22 Greek sailors from the Antonios Chandris, sunk by the German raider Widder. The survivors had drifted for weeks, some so weak they had to be carried aboard. Their rescue was widely reported, and the survivors later returned to Europe on the same ship, greeted in Lisbon by Greek officials.

Outcome: All 22 were rescued and eventually returned home.

Casualties: None among this group, though their ordeal was severe.

Interesting Note: The Serpa Pinto became a symbol of Portugal’s humanitarian neutrality, later also transporting refugees from Nazi-occupied Europe1.

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Nyassa

Rescue of Andaluzian (20 March 1941)

Event: On March 20, 1941, the passenger liner Nyassa picked up 23 survivors from the British ship Andaluzian, torpedoed in the Atlantic.

Rescue Details: The survivors were rescued from rough seas and landed at a Portuguese port.

Outcome: 23 men were brought to safety.

Casualties: Not specified.

Interesting Note: Nyassa was also known for transporting refugees from Europe to the Americas during the war1.

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Gorgulho

Rescue of Aurillac (25 April 1941)

Event: On April 25, 1941, the Gorgulho rescued survivors from the Aurillac, a vessel lost to wartime action.

Rescue Details: Survivors were brought aboard and later landed safely.

Outcome: Survivors saved; details on numbers not specified.

Casualties: Not specified.

Interesting Note: The rescue was one of several by Portuguese ships during the dangerous spring of 19411.

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Angola

Rescue of Wray Castle (4 May 1941)

Event: On May 4, 1941, the Portuguese liner Angola found and rescued survivors from the British ship Wray Castle, sunk by a U-boat.

Rescue Details: The rescued sailors were taken to Lisbon.

Outcome: Allied seamen saved and landed in Portugal.

Casualties: Not specified.

Interesting Note: The Angola was a regular on colonial routes and played a key humanitarian role during the war1.

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Mirandella

Rescue of Queen Maud (7 May 1941)

Event: On May 7, 1941, Mirandella found and rescued the shipwrecked crew of the Queen Maud, another victim of submarine warfare.

Rescue Details: Survivors were given shelter and landed in Portugal.

Outcome: Crew saved.

Casualties: Not specified.

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Ás de Paus & Pátria e Liberdade

Rescue of Martin Pecheur (10 May 1941)

Event: On May 10, 1941, two Portuguese ships, Ás de Paus and Pátria e Liberdade, jointly rescued survivors from the Martin Pecheur.

Rescue Details: The survivors, adrift in the Atlantic, were brought to safety by the combined efforts of both crews.

Outcome: Survivors landed safely.

Casualties: Not specified.

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Ganda

Rescue of British Grenadier (23 May 1941)

Event: On May 23, 1941, Ganda found survivors from the British tanker British Grenadier, sunk by a U-boat.

Rescue Details: The rescued men were landed at Lisbon.

Outcome: Crew saved.

Casualties: Not specified.

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Tarrafal

Rescue of Clan Macdougall (31 May 1941)

Rescue of Trinidad (25 September 1941)

Event: On September 25, 1941, Gronelândia picked up castaways from the Trinidad, a ship lost to wartime action.

Rescue Details: Survivors were brought aboard and landed safely.

Outcome: Crew saved.

Casualties: Not specified.

Rescues by Civilian Portuguese Vessels 1942

Portuguese Vessel	Date	Rescued Vessel (Nationality)	Survivors Rescued	Casualties (if known)
João Corte Real	22-Jan-1942	Gandia (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Cunene	27-Mar-1942	Svenør (Norwegian)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Cunene & Lobito	06-Apr-1942	Koll (Norwegian)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Almirante Sousa e Faro	07-Jul-1942	Dago (unknown)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Maria Amélia & Mirandella	27-May-1942	Polyphemus (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Argus	10-Jun-1942	Empire Clough (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Nacala	11-Jun-1942	Mahronda, Hellenic Trader	Not specified	Not specified 2
Angoche II	12-Jun-1942	Cliftonhall (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Pedro Nunes	27-Aug-1942	Clan Macwhirter (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Cubango	12-Sep-1942	Trevilley (British)	15	Not specified 2
Cubango	14-Sep-1942	Breedijk (Dutch)	13	Not specified 2
Portuguese Fishing Boats	19-Sep-1942	HMT Alouette (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Mouzinho	19-Sep-1942	Baron Ogilvy (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Lourenço Marques	30-Nov-1942	Cleanthis (Greek)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Luso	10-Aug-1942	Medon (unknown)	Not specified	Not specified 2

João Corte Real

Rescue of Gandia (22 January 1942)

Event: On January 22, 1942, the Portuguese merchant ship João Corte Real encountered survivors from the British cargo ship Gandia, which had been torpedoed and sunk by a German U-boat off the Azores.

Rescue Details: Survivors were found adrift in lifeboats, exhausted and suffering from exposure. The crew of João Corte Real brought them aboard, provided food and medical attention, and transported them to safety in the Azores.

Outcome: Survivors were landed safely and received by local authorities.

Casualties: Not specified.

Interesting Note: The Gandia sinking was one of several in the Azores area during the intense U-boat campaign of early 1942.

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Cunene

Rescue of Svenør (27 March 1942) and Koll (6 April 1942)

Event: On March 27, 1942, the Portuguese ship Cunene found survivors from the Norwegian cargo ship Svenør, and on April 6, 1942, Cunene and Lobito jointly rescued crew members from the Norwegian ship Koll, both sunk by U-boats.

Rescue Details: Survivors were picked up in the Atlantic and landed safely in Portuguese ports. The rescues were coordinated with other Portuguese ships, demonstrating the effectiveness of civilian maritime networks.

Outcome: Survivors from both vessels were saved.

Casualties: Not specified.

Interesting Note: These rescues highlighted Portugal’s role as a neutral safe haven for Allied and neutral sailors in the Atlantic.

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Almirante Sousa e Faro

Rescue of Medon (10 August 1942)

Event: On August 10, 1942, the Luso found survivors from the Medon, a ship sunk by belligerent action.

Rescue Details: Survivors were rescued and cared for on board.

Outcome: Crew saved.

Casualties: Not specified.

Key Allied Rescues by Civilian Portuguese Vessels 1943

Portuguese Vessel	Date	Rescued Vessel (Nationality)	Survivors Rescued	Casualties (if known)
Inhambane	22-07-1943	Harmonic (British)	46	1 (Harmonic) 2
Lourenço Marques	11-03-1943	Aelybryn (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Sines	11-03-1943	Keystone (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Foca	29-03-1943	Moanda (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Albufeira	11-04-1943	James W. Denver (American)	10	Not specified 2
(Unspecified)	11-05-1943	Tinhow (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Luabo	17-07-1943	City of Canton (British)	Not specified	Not specified 2
Faro Fishing Boat	Nov 1943	USAAF B-24 Liberator (USA)	6	5 (airmen) 2

Inhambane

Rescue of the British Steamer Harmonic (22 July 1943)

Event: On July 22, 1943, the Portuguese merchant steamer Inhambane was returning from Montevideo to Lisbon when, at 7 a.m., it encountered a lifeboat carrying 46 survivors from the British steamship Harmonic, which had been torpedoed by U-172 a week earlier.

Rescue Details: The survivors, led by Captain Roland Stott, had endured days at sea, suffering from thirst and injuries. The Inhambane’s crew provided water, tobacco, clothing, and medical treatment. Recognizing the difficulty of carrying so many extra people to Lisbon, Captain Lourenço Fernandes decided to head for Baía, Brazil. There, on July 24, the survivors were transferred to a British vessel at the port entrance, after arrangements with the British consul.

Outcome: All 46 survivors were safely transferred and cared for. Only one man from Harmonic had died in the initial torpedo explosion.

Interesting Note: The German U-boat commander reportedly offered help to an injured survivor and even apologized for sinking the ship before departing-a rare gesture in the brutal Battle of the Atlantic2.

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Lourenço Marques

Rescue of Aelybryn Survivors (11 March 1943)

Event: On March 11, 1943, the Portuguese merchant vessel Lourenço Marques encountered survivors from the British ship Aelybryn, which had been sunk by belligerent action.

Rescue Details: The survivors were found adrift and taken aboard, where they received food, water, and medical attention.

Outcome: Survivors were landed safely and received by local authorities.

Casualties: Not specified.

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Sines

Rescue of Keystone Survivors (11 March 1943)

Event: On the same day, March 11, 1943, the Portuguese merchant ship Sines rescued castaways from the Keystone, another vessel lost to wartime action.

Rescue Details: The Sines’s crew brought the survivors aboard and provided immediate care.

Outcome: Survivors were landed safely in Portugal.

Casualties: Not specified.

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Foca

Rescue of Moanda Crew (29 March 1943)

Event: On March 29, 1943, the Portuguese ship Foca found and rescued the crew of the Moanda, a vessel lost in the Atlantic.

Rescue Details: Survivors were picked up from lifeboats and cared for on board.

Outcome: Crew landed safely.

Casualties: Not specified.

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Albufeira

Rescue of James W. Denver Survivors (11 April 1943)

Event: On April 11, 1943, the Portuguese vessel Albufeira found ten survivors from the American ship James W. Denver.

Rescue Details: The survivors, adrift for days, were rescued and provided with food, water, and medical attention.

Outcome: All ten were landed safely.

Casualties: Not specified.

Unspecified Portuguese Vessels

Rescue of Tinhow Survivors (11 May 1943)

Event: On May 11, 1943, two Portuguese vessels jointly rescued survivors from the Tinhow.

Rescue Details: The survivors were picked up and cared for by the crews of both ships.

Outcome: Survivors landed safely.

Casualties: Not specified.

Luabo

Rescue of City of Canton Survivors (17 July 1943)

Event: On July 17, 1943, the Portuguese vessel Luabo found castaways from the City of Canton.

Rescue Details: Survivors were taken aboard, cared for, and landed safely.

Outcome: Crew saved.

Casualties: Not specified.

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Faro Fishing Boat

Rescue of USAAF B-24 Liberator Crew (November 1943)

Event: In late 1943, a USAAF B-24 Liberator crashed off the Algarve coast. Three Faro fishermen-Jaime Nunes, José Mascarenhas, and his teenage son Manuel-rowed through rough seas to rescue six American airmen.

Rescue Details: The fishermen brought the survivors ashore, hid them from authorities, and helped arrange their repatriation.

Outcome: Six airmen survived; five perished in the crash.

Interesting Note: This act of bravery was only publicly recognized decades later, with a memorial in Faro.

Rescues by Civilian Portuguese Vessels 1944

There are no documented rescues at sea by Portuguese merchant or fishing vessels in 1944 (i.e., picking up castaways from torpedoed Allied or Axis ships). The shift in the war meant far fewer sinkings near Portuguese waters, and the focus of Portuguese civilian shipping turned to refugee transport rather than open-sea rescues of shipwrecked sailors.

In 1944, Portuguese merchant ships-especially the liners SS Nyassa and SS Serpa Pinto-continued their vital humanitarian missions, primarily transporting refugees fleeing war-torn Europe. While there are no documented open-sea rescues of torpedoed merchantmen by Portuguese civilian ships in 1944, the year was marked by dramatic and historically significant refugee voyages, and at least one perilous encounter with a German U-boat.

SS Nyassa

Refugee Voyages and Humanitarian Action (1944)

January 25, 1944: Nyassa departed Lisbon carrying 172 Jewish refugees, some of whom had been in Portugal since 1933. She then called at Cádiz, Spain, where she embarked another 570 refugees. The voyage continued through the Suez Canal to Portuguese India and returned via Mozambique, repatriating Portuguese civil servants who had been stranded due to the war.
Significance: This voyage made Nyassa the first merchant ship to make a commercial passage through the Mediterranean and Suez Canal since Italy entered the war in June 1940.
June 1944: Nyassa left Lisbon with 75 refugees and 25 US citizens, reaching Philadelphia after a 17-day crossing on July 8.
September 18, 1944: She departed Lisbon with 118 passengers, including 95 refugees, reaching Philadelphia on October 1. Thirteen of these refugees were to join relatives in the US; the rest were bound for Canada.

Interesting Note:
Nyassa’s 1944 voyages reflect Portugal’s ongoing commitment to humanitarian neutrality. The ship’s ability to navigate war zones and deliver hundreds of refugees to safety-despite the risks of submarine warfare-was a remarkable achievement and a lifeline for many5.

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SS Serpa Pinto

Refugee Voyages and U-Boat Incident (May 26, 1944)

Humanitarian Voyages: Throughout 1944, Serpa Pinto continued to carry refugees from Lisbon and Spanish ports to the Americas, with the support of organizations like the Joint Distribution Committee (JDC). Passenger lists from 1941–1944 show thousands of refugees, including Jews fleeing the Holocaust, diplomats, and other civilians, found safety aboard her6.
Dramatic U-Boat Encounter: On May 26, 1944, Serpa Pinto was intercepted in the mid-Atlantic by a German U-boat. The submarine’s captain ordered the ship to stop and forced all passengers and crew into lifeboats, preparing to sink the vessel. After several tense hours, the U-boat commander received orders from Berlin to let Serpa Pinto go, and the refugees and crew were allowed to reboard. The ship continued its voyage, and all aboard survived7.

Interesting Note:
The Serpa Pinto incident became a symbol of the perils faced by neutral humanitarian vessels during the Second World War. Prime Minister Salazar reportedly considered a diplomatic embargo in response, underscoring the gravity of the situation and Portugal’s resolve to protect its ships and humanitarian missions.

Summary Table: Major Portuguese Civilian Ship Humanitarian Missions, 1944

Ship	Date(s)	Rescue/Mission Type	Refugees/Survivors Transported	Casualties
Nyassa	Jan, Jun, Sep 1944	Refugee transport (Lisbon–US/India/etc.)	172–570 per voyage	None
Serpa Pinto	26-May-1944	U-boat interception, refugee transport	Hundreds per voyage	None

Rescues by Civilian Portuguese Vessels 1945

By 1945, the Battle of the Atlantic had dramatically subsided, and the need for at-sea rescues by Portuguese civilian vessels was nearly nonexistent. The main focus of Portuguese maritime activity shifted toward the return to peacetime operations, with convoys and the “White Fleet” (cod-fishing schooners) continuing their traditional work, but without documented rescues of torpedoed or shipwrecked Allied, Axis, or neutral sailors that year. The last wartime cod-fishing convoy sailed in April 1945, and the threat from U-boats had ended with Germany’s surrender in May.

The SS Nova Scotia Rescue (1942)

Although the NRP Afonso de Albuquerque was a Portuguese Navy ship, I thought the story compelling in what happened during the rescue. The British troop transport Nova Scotia, carrying 1,052 people (including 766 Italian POWs and internees ), was sunk by U-177 off Natal, South Africa. The U-boat was advised not to pick up survivors and the Portuguese in neighboring Lourenço Marques (today’s Maputo, Mozambique) were alerted to the human catastrophe. The Portuguese sloop NRP Afonso de Albuquerque, commanded by Captain José de Brito, located survivors after a 27-hour search. Despite intense rivalry between Allied guards and Italian prisoners on life rafts, the crew rescued 194 people, including a woman who swam alone for 30 hours after losing her daughter. The operation, the largest by a Portuguese ship during the Second World War, highlights both humanitarian commitment and the grim realities of wartime enmity. 4

Portuguese Vessel	Date	Rescued Vessel (Nationality)	Survivors Rescued	Casualties (Rescued Vessel)
NRP Afonso de Albuquerque (Navy sloop)	29-Nov-1942	Nova Scotia (British troop transport)	194 (64 Allies, 130 Italians)	858 (212 Allies, 646 Italians)

Bibliography

Notes

Many rescues lack detailed survivor/vessel names due to incomplete records.
Portuguese civilian crews were rarely named in official reports.
The Serpa Pinto also transported Jewish refugees to safety, earning the nickname “Ship of Destiny.”

Medalha Comemorativa do Esforço dos Tripulantes da Marinha Mercante Durante a Guerra de 1939-1945 [Commemorative Medal for the Effort of Merchant Marine Crews During the War of 1939-1945]

The Portuguese Merchant Marine commemorative medal from the Second World War employs rich symbolic language that draws from classical antiquity while honoring Portugal’s maritime heritage. The obverse features a striking winged female figure in the tradition of Victoria (Nike), the classical personification of victory. Clothed in flowing robes reminiscent of ancient Greek chiton garments, she stands proudly upon a stylized ship’s prow—a significant detail that anchors her firmly in maritime context while echoing classical victory monuments where Nike was often depicted on the prow of a vessel. This imagery deliberately evokes the Nike of Samothrace, one of the most famous ancient sculptures depicting victory at sea.

The figure holds what appears to be a laurel branch or palm frond extended outward, traditional symbols of triumph, honor, and peace dating back thousands of years. Her posture, with its subtle contrapposto stance, conveys dignity and classical grace, while her expansive wings create a protective embrace that symbolically shelters those who served at sea. These wings serve multiple symbolic functions: they emphasize the divine or elevated nature of national recognition, suggest protection over the sailors, and reference freedom and transcendence over earthly dangers—particularly meaningful for those who faced the perils of war at sea.

Encircling this central figure, the inscription “RECONHECIMENTO DA NAÇÃO” (Recognition from the Nation) employs a formal Roman-inspired typeface that lends governmental authority and connects the medal to traditional European commemorative design. The typography’s precision and placement follow classical medallion conventions, creating a sense of timeless honor rather than merely contemporary recognition.

The reverse side centers on a boldly rendered anchor, the universal symbol of maritime identity and hope. In Portuguese naval tradition, the anchor represents not only the practical tools of seafaring but also steadfastness in the face of adversity—a particularly resonant meaning for merchant sailors facing wartime dangers. This anchor is positioned between the years “1939-1945,” clearly defining the period of service being commemorated while creating visual balance in the composition.

The reverse’s encircling text, “MEDALHA COMEMORATIVA DO ESFORÇO DOS TRIPULANTES DA MARINHA MERCANTE DURANTE A GUERRA DE 1939-1945,” follows the tradition of explanatory text on medal reverses. The consistent typography connects visually to the obverse, creating design unity across both faces of the medal.

The medal’s suspension element features an intricately rendered nautical rope formed into a loop, incorporating maritime craft directly into the functional aspects of the medal rather than using a standard military attachment. This thoughtful detail reinforces Portugal’s deep historical connection to seafaring traditions dating back to the Age of Discovery, when Portuguese navigators first mapped much of the world’s oceans.

Taken as a whole, the medal represents a sophisticated blending of classical allegory with practical maritime symbolism. It effectively communicates that though Portugal maintained official neutrality during the Second World War, the nation recognized that its merchant sailors faced dangers comparable to military combatants. The design choices place this particular service within Portugal’s lengthy maritime heritage while using universal symbols recognized across Western cultural contexts, elevating what might have been a simple service medal into a meaningful artistic commemoration.

October 3, 2019December 14, 2022

“abercrombie”

The summer before I went to college, I was not so worried about leaving home for the first time, I was concerned I did not have what it took to be a good Naval Officer. My doubts came when I received a letter about O-week. This was an orientation, I learned, about life as a Naval ROTC midshipman. I figured it would be a nice way to get to school early and get my bearings. The doubts came when I heard that it was some sort of boot camp where upperclassmen attempted to break-in lubbers. I thought I had it over all of them, since I lived in the Navy for my entire life.

I grew up in the shadow of my Grandfather who was a warrant officer and then LDO, and my step-father who was a chief and LDO in the Navy. Both of them came to the Navy from two different generations. The Navy of my Grandfather was a collegial place – he was in the submarine community. My stepfather’s Navy was bogged down in seemingly petty politics – of who said what at the wardroom table or “college boys” looking down on my stepfather because he did not have the formal education they had. From my perspective, a Naval Officer had dignity about them, were detail-oriented, and honorable to a fault. I felt as though I was a good fit for the role.

One of the first things we did at O-week was to get our photographs taken for ID cards. Name placards were made and we were handed a pile of clothes. My first evening at college was spent polishing my shoes. I taught others around me how to do it since I had been polishing shoes for years. We were also shown how to iron our khakis. I too had this down from years of practice.

The PT in the morning was annoying but bearable. The marching up and down sidewalks in tight formation felt silly. In the classroom, we were constantly being yelled at for the smallest of mistakes. One of my fellow inductees was reamed out for not knowing the NATO alphabet having only been told it once. I did lots of pushups because I called a fellow with a name plaque that read Moran, “moron.” He didn’t like that. I was forced to remove my name plaque and replace it with one emblazoned with the name “Abercrombie.” I had to spell it at a moment’s notice in the NATO alphabet. I never stumbled spelling ALPHA BRAVO ECHO ROMEO CHARLIE ROMEO OSCAR MIKE BRAVO INDIA ECHO – my childhood was spent staring at signal flags and studying the military.

I understood what they were attempting to do: to break me. Despite what might be called hazing, I was motivated to excel. They could not break me.

One evening, though, I realized I didn’t want to be part of the Navy, not this Navy. This realization came when I was sitting in my room and I overheard upperclassmen saying how they couldn’t wait to have a taste of fresh meat. As their conversation continued, I realized they were talking about a group of young women in our group and they went into lurid detail about how they planned on getting them drunk and showing them a “real man.” My head burned with anger. I knew I would not be able to bear being around other students referring to incoming first-year women as fresh meat. The next day, I gathered up the courage and told the unit’s CO I just didn’t have what it took and wished to separate from the unit. Later that afternoon, I gave the Yeoman all my uniforms and called my parents. I felt like a complete failure.

I was given a pair of boards by the Yeoman in parting. He thought I was a good kid. They were apparently antique.

In retrospect, I should not have left on some made-up excuse, in that I didn’t feel I was cut out for the Navy. I should have told the CO I was disgusted with my classmates and I found their comments abhorrent. I should have been an ally to the young women who were participating in O-week. However, I wasn’t mentally prepared to say what I needed to say. What I heard instead were shades of my stepfather’s comments toward women and this was a culture not for me.

A couple of years after I left NROTC I bumped into a fellow midshipman. We chatted a bit, he was planning on becoming an aviator, and I was just accepted to grad school. When I told him a regretted dropping out, he told me I would never have made it anyway – my problem was that I was too sensitive and I needed to toughen up. The Navy had no place for an officer like me. I asked him about the young women in the program – in a low voice he told me one of them was sexually assaulted, but it was all hush-hush.

November 23, 2021November 23, 2021

RRS Shackleton plaque

From the Collection: RRS Shackleton plaque

Current ship wardroom plaques, otherwise known as ship’s plaques or ship’s emblems, or formally as ship’s badges came from an old tradition that reaches back to the age of sail. As a means of identification, sailing ships used carved figureheads as a distinguishing feature; however, with the move from sail to steam, there was no place on the prow or the bow to place ornate carvings. Utilitarianism eventually won out over embellishment and on haze-gray hulls became painted dull numbers and names. Yet, sailors wished to hold on to tradition and over time developed a system of naval heraldry; similar to, but distinct from that of landsmen.

Ships’ badges first appeared on United Kingdom Royal Navy vessels in the 1850s. Originally, they were found on ship’s stationery, and this innovation came to mark the small boats assigned to a ship and also the ship itself, on the bridge. The Admiralty decided to reign in the rather haphazard means of creating badges and appointed its first advisor on naval heraldry in the person of Charles ffoulkes, then curator of the Imperial War Museum, in 1918. He picked up the mantle of the Ships’ Badge Committee. Their main innovation was the use of a visual means to determine the class of ship or establishment by shape of badge: circular (battleships and battle cruisers), pentagonal (cruisers), U-shaped shield (destroyers), and diamond (shore establishments, depot ships, small war vessels, and aircraft carriers).

By 1940, the designs for all ships were standardized to a circular design. This was due to the bureaucratic nightmare of re-use of names on newly commissioned ships requiring re-configuration of badges to match ship type. Post-war, After the war, the pentagonal badge shape was assigned to Royal Fleet Auxiliary vessels and the diamond to commissioned shore establishments. RRS ship also used a circular configuration badge was noted in the example of the RRS Shackleton.

The RRS Shackleton was in service with the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS)/British Antarctic Survey (BAS) from 1955/56 until 1968/69. Her role was primarily that of a survey and science vessel, supporting marine geophysics programs. Originally named the Arendal, she was built in 1954 at Sölvesborg in Sweden for Arendals Dampskibsselskab, Norway. In August 1955, she was bought by FIDS for £230,000, and further strengthened for work in sea ice. She was renamed RRS Shackleton by Mrs. Arthur, wife of the then Governor of the Falkland Islands and Dependencies, in a ceremony at Southampton on 19 December 1955.

Her namesake is Sir Ernest Shackleton, 1874-1922, one of the most famous figures from the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. Sir Shackleton served on Scott’s Discovery Expedition (British National Antarctic Expedition) 1901-04, he led the Nimrod Expedition (British Antarctic Expedition) 1907-09 but is most well-known for the Endurance Expedition (Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition) 1914–17 – a remarkable story of survival against the odds. Sir Shackleton died during the Quest Expedition (Shackleton-Rowett Antarctic Expedition) 1921-1922, and is buried in the whalers’ graveyard at Grytviken, South Georgia.

From 1969, the RRS Shackleton was operated by BAS’s parent body, NERC (Natural Environment Research Council) as an oceanographic research vessel. Under NERC ownership she carried out geophysical and marine geology cruises in Antarctic waters until being withdrawn from service in May 1983 and sold.

Technical specification
Lloyds classification: 2-3 for ice
Dimensions: length 200 ft 6 ins; breadth 36 ft 1 ins
Loaded displacement: 1658 tons
Gross tonnage: 1102 tons
Propulsion: diesel engine, 785 SHP
Speed: service speed 12 knots
Port of registry
Stanley, Falkland Islands

A second ship was also named after Ernest Shackleton in 1999 – the current RRS Ernest Shackleton.

December 31, 2011November 14, 2021

British Antarctic Survey

For my son’s completion of his first week of Second Grade, I gave him a small gift: a legal tender coin from the British Antarctic Territory (BAT). He asked me where this place was, and we searched for it in his world atlas and flag gazetteer. Since the international community does not recognize BAT, his atlas did not have the Territory outlined. I drew an imaginary wedge for him over a wide swath of Antarctica. “It’s such a far way away, on the bottom of the world!” he said. I explained to him the Territory has no permanent residents and is dotted with a few research stations. “People get there by plane or ship,” I mentioned and then told him the story of the British Antarctic Survey. I showed him a British Antarctic Survey cap badge from the 1970s, and its predecessor’s the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey from the late 1940s. He asked me if either were rare. I said the FIDS cap badge is rarest in my collection. He was more interested in the coin with penguins, a whale, and the Queen.

The British Antarctic Survey’s (BAS) history, due to its mission and unique circumstance, mirrors that of the United Kingdom’s polar adventures. It may trace its immediate lineage to the halcyon days of heroic exploration by Shackleton and Scott, and Second World War secret Royal Naval expeditions of Operation Tabarin I and II. The present organization, first as he Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS) answered to the Colonial Office, and then later as British Antarctic Survey to the National Environment Research Council (NERC). Through these organizational permutations, the ships themselves remained Royal Research Vessels, and mariners civilian. This essay will briefly sketch the history of BAS and then concentrate on the organization of a BAS ship with a discussion of BAS Officer insignia.

British scientific interest and exploration of the South Pole began in earnest during the early 1830s with the charting expeditions of John Biscoe. Following him, the Royal Society and Admiralty, through private donation and public subscription, brought a small, but steady stream of explorers to the Antarctic. These heroic men-of-science, experiencing the extremes of human endurance, ventured to the continent and its surrounding seas questioning everything from geologic history to ionosphere behavior and photo-plankton life-cycles. Ships of the period were whalers, borrowed naval ships, and the rare purposefully refitted vessel. Each carried men and materièl to the great ice-shelf and battered polar islands, and sometimes purposefully (or not) acted as an ice-bound wintering-over base. Once the explorers came to understand the landscape and how to endure the elements, did survey work and dashes to the interior give way to the foundation of research camps. At the turn of the last century, Antarctica played host to scores of international researchers during this heady time – with Great Britain leading the pack. Then came the Great War momentarily halting Antarctic exploration. The death of Ernest Shackleton in 1922 heralded the end of the Heroic Age of Polar Exploration. After Shakleton came a new generation of British explorers – for them, scientific curiosity tempered by national prestige became the new face of exploration. In this era, the independent amateur adventurer bowed-out to the Royally-warranted researcher. It is at this juncture when the Royal Research Ship or Vessel – with alternate prefixes RRS, RRV or RARV – took the stage.

King Edward VII visit to RRS Discovery, 5 August 1901

National Antarctic Expedition envelope stamp, 1901

The Royal Charter of research vessels began with the 1923 Crown purchase of the Discovery for the Royally-warranted 1925 Discovery Expedition. This ship was the same three-master which carried Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton on their 1901-1904 expeditions. With the refitting of the Discovery, the Colonial Office and Admiralty did not create a unique flag nor for the ship; however, as a Royal Research Ship (RRS), the Discovery wore an undefaced Blue Ensign, following the custom at the time of ships in the employ of the government. In a later expedition, in addition to the Blue Ensign, RRS Discovery wore a white flag; this was flown from the foremast as a courtesy flag for the continent, which lacked a flag.

White Flag of Antarctica. Col.: Royal Museums Greenwich [**AAA0895**]

Beginning with the success of RRS Discovery and her crew, the Crown continued its patronage and has warranted research vessels for work in the Antarctic region through the present day. The purpose of the RRS Discovery and those that followed was to provide a support platform for scientific endeavors in and around the Antarctic. And as state property, this rated the ship to fly the Blue Ensign. With the Admiralty chartering the RRS Discovery to scientific expeditions, a precedent began where RRS vessels in turn were manned by individuals under contract by the organizations which used the vessels; this is akin to a classic bare-boat charter. After the Second World War, the face of Antarctic exploration became two-prong: doing scientific research and asserting territorial claims (albeit tempered by treaty obligations). In this period, the Colonial Office tasked the newly-created Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS) to provide continuous Antarctic exploration support for Commonwealth nations, but the primary mission for FIDS was survey work. In 1962, following the success of the 1958 International Geophysical Year, Britain’s emphasis on activities in Antarctica became oriented toward scientific research rather than survey. This saw the dual creation of the National Environmental Research Council (NERC) with its subordinate organization of the British Antarctic Survey (BAS). BAS saw to the support of the British scientific mission in Antarctica.

2 February 1950. A relief party from the RRS John Biscoe is rescuing two British Scientists who have been on Stonington Island. Col.: IW

Shipboard organization & insignia

In its various guises the BAS fleet was never very large, and ships’ crew few. These individuals were (and are) members of the British Merchant Navy and as such are British or British nationals of one sort or another. Until the mid-1970s, the Master of a BAS ship employed and paid all Petty Officers and Ratings. All Officers were and still are recruited through BAS Headquarters in London and later Cambridge. During the period when the fleet was operated by FIDS, many a ship’s crew member was a Falkland Islander. These days, with off-season dry-docking in the British Isles, this is no longer the case. BAS continues to maintain a very close link with the Falkland Islands, and despite not being primarily crewed by Falkland Islanders, BAS ships arrange many official and social functions.

They are also used by the UK Government for official functions such as Royal Reviews, Open Days and London Visits, coupled with their close links with HMS Endurance/Protector and the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office.
Personal correspondence, Stuart Lawrence, 2011.

At this writing (2011), there are two Royal Research Vessels chartered for use by BAS, the RRS James Clark Ross and RRS Ernest Shackleton. Their respective compliment is 80 (11 Officers, 15 Crew, 1 Doctor, and 52 Scientific Personnel) and 72 (22 Officers/Crew and 50 Scientific Personnel). They are run as standard British Merchant Navy vessels with their organization an outgrowth of a century-old tradition of a division of ship navigation and cargo handling, propulsion, and victualing. As such, each member of the crew has a highly circumscribed role with no overlap in responsibilities among them. All members of the crew work as a team within their group; however, if holding a specific trade, a crewman works within that trade in conjunction with their Department – in other words, a motorman would not find himself in catering. This classic departmental division is also found on Royal Navy vessels, but that is where the similarity both begins and ends – BAS ships, despite being subject to Admiralty rules, have no connection with the Royal Navy; although, in theory a reserve Royal Navy officer may serve onboard, but not in the capacity of a warrior.

The RRS James Clark Ross and the RRS Ernest Shackleton operate in different ways, hence the difference in compliment. Both will move scientists around and act as supply vessels, delivering all the equipment that is required to run an Antarctic Base. The RRS James Clark Ross tends to the small island of Signy (summer only), Bird Island, and South Georgia, as well as the serving as the main relief for Rothera Research Station. The RRS Ernest Shackleton does the relief of Halley Research Station each year and then visits the smaller BAS bases. Both ships take waste and mail as and when required.

Using the RRS James Clark Ross as our model (the RRS Ernest Shackleton has a different manning level due to the type of vessel), the onboard organization is comprised of Deck, Engineering, and Catering Departments; respectively, each has its province in the superstructure, amidships and the galley.

The Master of the ship has command of the vessel and is the overall commanding officer. On the RRS James Clark Ross, he is dubbed the traditional “Old Man.” He is not a member of any one department since all report to him. Each of the Departments’ compliment with responsibilities is as follows:

Deck

A BAS ship’s Deck Department run by a Chief Officer, with a Second, Third, and Fourth Officers. It has a Boatswain, Bosun’s Mate, Launchman as Petty Officers, and four Able Seamen and four Deck Boys as Ratings. In 2011, the RRS James Clark Ross had the following:

Chief Officer – The executive officer of the ship. Involved in the quotidian concerns of the Deck Department. He is also responsible for the stability of the ship, loading and discharging cargo, and feeder boat operations.
Second Officer – Responsible for the passage planning and maintaining the chart portfolio, including navigational corrections.
Third Officer – The most junior Deck Officer is responsible for maintaining much of the Life Saving Equipment.
Boatswain (Bosun) – In charge of the Deck Crew. His is not a licensed officer’s position (likewise as are his subordinates); for Americans readers, an approximate US Navy relative position would be that of Chief Petty Officer.
Bosun’s Mate – This position is subaltern to that of the Boatswain. With the absence of a “Chippy” (Ship’s Carpenter) and a “Lampie” (Lamptrimmer), in addition managing the deck crew in the absence of the Bosun, his responsibilities involve sounding the all the freshwater and ballast tanks.
AB’s (Able Seamen) – On the RRS James Clark Ross, they are the general deckhands. The ship carries five.

Engine

The Engine Department run by a Chief Engineer, with a Second, Third and
Fourth Engineers, Electrical, and Radio Officers (now Electro Technical
Officers), a Donkeyman as a Petty Officer, and three Greasers (Motormen) as Ratings.

Chief Engineer – His responsibilities include overseeing all aspects of the ship’s propulsion and internal mechanics.
2nd Engineer – Responsible for the day to day running of the Engine Room.
3rd and 4th Engineer – Assist the 2nd as required and directed.
Deck Engineer. Responsible for scientific and supporting equipment, such as winches and gantries.
Radio Officer – Operates the communications equipment. He is known colloquially aboard the RRS James Clark Ross as the “Comms man” – the common nickname for the position is “Sparks.” He is located in the Radio room, and not the Navigational bridge; he is in the organizational purview of the Engineering Department, yet reports to the ship’s Master.
ETO(L) – Electrician. Responsible for all the electrical equipment onboard.
ETO(C) – Communications (Radioman). Maintains all communications and navigational equipment. The two ETO’s work in tandem with some jobs being covered by both.
Donkeyman – Is the Petty Officer in charge of the Motormen. He manages and performs engineering tasks allowing the licensed Engineer Officers to execute more difficult jobs.
Motormen – They are highly skilled unlicensed crewmembers; in terms of position, are crucial to the function of the Engine Department. They are called “Greasers.” Prior to the advent of modern training, they were the “old hands” who would undo the mistakes of younger or less experienced engineers as well as serving in the traditional role of providing extra hands. On the RRS James Clark Ross there are two.

Catering

Catering Department run by a Chief Steward (now a Purser Catering
Officer). Under him are a 2nd Steward (now a Chief Steward), and Chief Cook, as Petty Officers. The 2nd Cook/Baker, and four Stewards are Ratings. This hierarchal structure has had its position names changed over the decades but has remained the same since FIDS days.

Purser – In charge of the Catering Department. He is also responsible for storing the vessel with victuals and the office of keeping ship’s accommodations clean and tidy. He also acts in the role as a “hotel manager” and looks after the needs of visiting scientists and passengers. In the past, this individual was called Chief Steward in Merchant Navy parlance – the Chief Steward is now what previously would be called a Steward.
Chief Cook – In charge of the Galley; he rates a Petty Officer.
Assistant Cook – Second in charge of the Galley. He is responsible for baking the bread each day.
Chief Steward – Responsible for looking after the accommodations.
Stewards – Two work for the Chief Steward and one who assists in the Galley.

Medical

Doctor – The ship has a sick berth and when working in Southern waters or “down south” it carries a single doctor. Historically, the Doctor joined the ship in Southampton and sailed for the entire season; however, as of late, he joins the ship in the Falkland Islands. The rationale for this change is that in terms of economics; there has not been a need for one on the Atlantic passage. When the RRS James Clark Ross is in Arctic waters, likewise a Doctor is not berthed.

BAS ships follow a standard Merchant Navy and Royal Navy watch system. The Chief, 2nd and 3rd Officer are on watches when at sea. The Chief does 4-8, 3rd 8-12, and 2nd 12-4. Also on watch are one of the five ABs who rotate, with two on day work for a week and the other three on watches. The only change in Deck compliment is that from time to time, an additional Deck Officer might join the ship to work with the scientists in the deployment and recovery of equipment. At times, like most British-flag vessels, the crew may be augmented by a singular cadet. For the Officers and Crew, the periods of work is four months on and four months off.

Like the original Royal Research vessels, The RRS James Clark Ross acts as a floating scientific platform. Scientists will join the ship, bringing specialist equipment with them. The ship will give them accommodation and computing facilities, and then interface their equipment to the ship. Equipment is as varied as low/high-pressure hydraulics, and electricity in the many forms that it can be turned into interacting with hot/cold water and saltwater. The vessel travels to locations specified by the scientists and deploys the equipment as required. A typical science cruise on the RRS James Clark Ross will last six or seven weeks. On average, the RRS James Clark Ross will carry out about ten or eleven science cruises, with some cruises dedicated for a singular purpose, while others are fitted into other work and may only take a few days or weeks.

An early group photograph of officers on the RRS William Scoresby show them in Merchant Navy garb, with a few unique embellishments. These uniforms were recently new innovations for the British Mercantile Marine quum Merchant Navy. In the years that followed the Great War, King George V honored the British Mercantile Marine for its valiant service rendered to the Empire in the face of battle by giving it the official moniker of Merchant Navy with the Prince of Wales as its Master. This title underscored the fact that British merchantmen were Royal Navy auxiliaries and could be pressed into service in the event of a national emergency. As a sanctioned and militarized government marine, Merchant Navy officers were licensed, and at an individual’s and company’s prerogative, uniformed with distinctive cap devices and special cuff lace (alternately known as braid, distinction lace or rank stripes). The Merchant Navy cap device is comprised of a Tudor Naval Crown surmounting a maroon-cushioned oval on which rests a silver anchor without cable. The cushion is surrounded by a double border of tightly looped gold wire or purl, and framed by gold oak leaves and acorns. The stylized Tudor Naval Crown is of particular interest as it is found on official British ship crests – for King Henry is credited with circumnavigating the British Isles. Cuff lace, also authorized for Merchant Navy officers, followed the pattern set by the Royal Navy with the noted exception of the executive curl, which as opposed to being curvilinear and resting on the uppermost rank stripe was moved between the stripes and made a lozenge. As may be discerned from the photograph, officers aboard a Royal Auxilliary Research Vessel wore insignia quite similar to that of period Merchant Navy (at the time also called interchangeably the Mercantile Marine or Mercantile Navy) and Royal Navy. This is a not at all uncommon occurrence, as Shipping Lines and the Government Marine wore very similar rank identifiers and uniform components; what is striking is the fact that RRS/RARV officers have crowns above their rank stripes and modified Merchant Navy cap badges. This use of crowns above cuff lace is a uniform element used by officers aboard all BAS ships.

Aboard BAS ships of today, only the officers have undress uniforms. An undress would be the classic blue reefer with cuff lace and two rows of gilt buttons, blue trousers, and a peaked white cap (the badge of which is the page’s header image). Practically, it is only worn on special occasions. Engineer officers spend their day in working gear or boiler suits and tend to only get changed into a uniform shirt, trousers, and a tie for dinner in the evening. In the 1950s, Petty Officers wore a rig similar to their Royal Navy counterparts. The same was true for Ratings. This was usually only worn upon arrival and departure from Southampton and Stanley up until the early 1970s; after this point, Health and Safety Regulations specified the wear of hardhats and boiler suits on deck.

Circa 1955. Example of traditional rig worn by rating aboard RRS *John Biscoe*. Note the jersey with the embroidered ship’s name and the sailor hat with tally. Col.: IW

Unlike the Royal Navy and like the Merchant Navy, British Antarctic Survey Officers continue to have branch colors between the rank rings on reefer cuffs and epaulets. The practice for distinguishing non-executive office by such means was abolished in 1955 by the Royal Navy, except for those who must be clearly recognizable as non-combatants serving with the Royal Navy as stipulated under the Geneva Convention. A relevant thought to consider is that since the same tailoring shops provided both shipping lines and the Royal Navy with livery and uniforms, influence of the latter can be discerned in the former, and now former acts as a remembrance of a passed tradition; interestingly, formal military costume these days is thought to retain conservative fashion and embellishments, this example is quite the opposite.

FIDS Officer insignia was closely modeled on that of the Royal Navy (RN equivalent rank in brackets) – although FIDS Officers were not of the Royal Navy:

Master: three stripes (Commander)
Chief Engineer and Chief Officer: 2 and a half stripes (Lieutenant Commander)
2nd Officer, Engineer, Radio Officer, and Electrician: 2 stripes (Lieutenant)
3rd Officer and Engineer: 1 stripe (Sub Lieutenant)
4th officer and Engineer half stripe:
Chief Steward: tree buttons on the cuff (Petty Officer)

The FIDS system was retained up until the early 1970s by BAS.

Present BAS Officer insignia, in some aspects, mirrors that of the present Merchant Navy; this is quite visible in the insignia of rank. At present, on either cuff braid on coats or slip-on epaulets for shirts, the lace of distinction is thus:

Master and Chief Engineer: four stripes
Chief Officer and 2nd Engineer: three stripes
2nd Officer and 3rd Engineer: two stripes
3rd Officer and 4th Engineer: one stripe
Electricians or Electric Technical Officers (ETO) including the Radio Officer, and the Purser: two and one-half stripes.

Branch colors, found between the rank stripes for FIDS and BAS Officers are:

Black: Executive or Deck
Purple: Engineers
Green: Electricians (ETO)
White: Pursers and Catering

Returning to the cap badge itself, of interest and what makes the BAS badge unique is the heterogeneous use of apparently Royal Navy and Merchant Navy symbolic elements. The cap badge is comprised of a St. Edward Crown surmounting a white leather cushioned oval on which rests a black anchor. The cushion is surrounded by a double border of tightly looped gold purl, and is framed by tightly-grouped gold laurel leaves. The St. Edward crown on the BAS cap badge is such because BAS ships are Royally-warranted Royal Research Ships – prior to Queen Elizabeth II’s ascension, the crown was the post-1901 crown (Tudor Crown). The white oval is a symbolic reminder of the BAS ships being involved in Polar region exploration. And the black anchor is in somber respect for the Antarctic explorer, Robert Falcon Scott who died on his last venture to the ice-bound continent. Thus, a Royal Navy element is not present, and the badge follows a decidedly Merchant Navy pattern.

RRS *Shackleton* wardroom plaque. *Shackleton* served with FIDS and BAS from 1955 through 1992. The central device is comprised of three buckles – a play on the Shackleton family name, “shackles” which are a form of a buckle. Col.: IW.

Messing arrangments on BAS ships have reflected the changing nature of intra-ship dynamics. Prior to 1999, ships maintained three messes: Officers Wardroom, FIDS Mess, and Crews Mess. For late watchstanders, there was also a small duty mess. After 1999, with the RRS Ernest Shackleton joining BAS, the individual messes combined and everyone was served cafeteria-style. This new messing style promoted a bit of conviviality among all aboard despite the three somewhat disparate groups: Officers, Crew, and Scientists. However, some of the old traditions remain as RRS James Clark Ross has an Officers and Scientists Saloon.

Robert Falcon Scott birthday, 6 June 1911.

Like his Royal Navy and Merchant Navy counterpart, the Master of a BAS ship dictates what style of uniform will be worn for the ship’s Officers and Crew. The uniform of the day, as it were, would be for arrivals and departures, and official entertainment occasions, and are often wool pullovers or tropical white rig dependant upon the ship’s area of operation. As alluded to before, the crew onboard BAS ships of the second millennium are not found working in formal uniforms, as may be the case on Royal Navy ships. However, being a Royal Research vessel, all are uniformed in some fashion and officers do wear insignia.

The uniform culture that once marked Britain has long passed. Culturally, uniforms were touted in the maritime community as markers of professionalism; however, as the example of replacing deckhands’ work uniforms with boiler suits and hardhats attest, uniforms are perfectly fine in ceremonial functions. Insignia, if worn in such a manner to not hinder shipboard functions such as are rank slides worn by BAS Officers, are important to denote position and rank. As artifacts of an older, formal culture, reefers – once an item for almost daily wear in temperate climates and formal occasions – rarely find their way from the locker. And, the Master may don his cap on official duties, such as taking on a pilot or a visit from a dignitary; otherwise, he is uncovered on the Navigation bridge. The hard work and inclement weather experienced by the crew outside of the forecastle forces a spirit of pragmatism; the crew are not in a dress rehearsal for battle, and outward examples of individual discipline as manifest by gleaming brass buckles, eternally pressed shirts, and polished shoes have given way to work boots and heavy foul-weather gear. By and large, BAS personnel have not traditionally worn uniforms and caps simply because there are few opportunities to wear them: their work milieu and Antarctic environment are not conducive to fancy dress.

Many thanks are due to Ellen A. Bazeley-White, of British Antarctic Survey – Archives Service; Stuart Lawrence, past Master of the RRS Bransfield and RRS Ernest Shackleton; and Lyle Halkett, a past Crew member of Falkland Islands Dependency Survey.

References and further reading

British Antarctic Survey. British Antarctic Survey. British Antarctic Survey, December 1977.

Sir Vivian Fuchs. Of Ice and Men: the story of the British Antarctic Survey 1943-73. Anthony Nelson Ltd., 1982.

Ernest Henry Shackleton. The Heart of the Antarctic: The Story of the British Antarctic Expedition 1907-1909. Birlin Publishers, 2002.

FIDS Petty Officer cap badge, ca. 1946-1953

FIDS is the precursor to BAS and was in operation between 1947-1962. This cap badge is a particularly rare Tudor Crown issue; it was worn by a crew member who held a position akin to a Petty Officer (Senior Able Seaman). the period of wear was up until 1953. At the time of this cap badge’s wear, FIDS had a single ship – with about five Petty Officers.

In terms of construction, this cap badge is stamped metal with enamels for the jewels, red felt for the crown cap. The black anchor is affixed to a white field of duck cloth with black thread.

BAS Officer cap badge, ca. 1950s

This cap badge is described in the text above. It is affixed to a mohair cap band, which would be found on an officer’s peaked cap.

7 November 1957. The ill-fated Captain Norman Brown, master of the RRS *Ernest Shackleton* of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey. Captain Brown took issue with the then Governor of the Falklands and his handling of the Royal Research Ship’s problems and promptly resigned. Col.: IW

BAS Officer cap badge, ca. 2000s

The images of the current British Antarctic Survey cap badge and cap are courtesy of Mike Gloistein. Mr. Gloistein is a long-time Radio Officer aboard BAS ships; he patiently and with good-humor provided many important notes regarding BAS shipboard organization. It is worth mentioning he is a recipient of the Polar Medal – thus a member of the very exclusive Polar Club. His award reads:

Her Majesty the Queen has been graciously pleased to award you the Polar Medal in recognition of your outstanding service to the British Antarctic Survey and to Polar Research.
London Gazette, 17 December 2004

It is from Mr. Gloistein’s uniform that I was able to determine the absence of Elliot’s Eye (the executive curl) on BAS uniforms.

BAS cap and cap badge, 2000s. Col.: Mike Gloistein.

BAS cap badge, 2000s. Col.: Mike Gloistein.

BAS Officer cap badge, reproduction

There do exist fake BAS cap badges, and they are quite dodgy in their composition. One found in the wild was described as 1950s Queen’s crown British Antarctic Survey badge. It is quite simply a Royal Navy Officer’s cap badge with a piece of white linen placed beneath a black-painted anchor. The badge is suspect on every account. As is known in cap badge circles, even “economy issue” badges produced at the end of the Second World War are deftly executed – a poorly affixed oval of cloth would never be found on the forward face of a badge. The wreath is altogether incorrect and the anchor is incongruous in both pattern and period. If anything, we might suspect a period BAS officer wearing a Royal Auxilliary Fleet badge, and not a poorly defaced RN one. As always, caveat emptor; this was sold at online auction for some £32 – only because the seller misspelled “Antarctic” as “Antartic.”

May 25, 2020November 1, 2020

United States Lines & USNRF

Military uniforms tell a story. The bit and bobs that are scattered across them offer clues to their context and sometimes even political battles fought far from the crew compartment or barracks. American Merchant Marine uniforms in the inter-war period were work clothes.

I was bothered by a statement by a General Dalton of the United States Shipping Board’s testimony to U. S. Congress in December 1926:

He claimed more than 50% of officers aboard United States Lines (USL) ships were reservists in the U. S. Naval Reserve Force (USNRF) – in fact just about all. The reason I was bothered has to do with the fact that pretty much all officers aboard USL ships wore a cap badge with an eagle – older collectors of Merchant Marine insignia told me, the reason for the eagle is because the officers were WWI veterans, and to give them a nod, United States Shipping Board (USSB) gave them caps with eagles on them. The eagles were reminiscent of the eagle found on a U.S. Naval officer’s cap – a cap forbidden for reservists to wear while not in uniform. As assumptions go, this is a fair one to consider. Across the Atlantic, P&O did this to attract ex-Royal Navy officers and they said they did too. And, it follows fellows who joined USNRF invariably stayed in USNRF after the war and they wished to wear their caps or something similar – to mark themselves apart. That makes sense – sort of.

So, I decided to locate and consult primary documents to corroborate the General’s statement. I found he was grossly incorrect or misinformed or just plain conflating the truth. Using these documents, I created a spreadsheet of the officers on SS Leviathan‘s maiden cruise and cross-referenced them with USNRF lists to determine:

Who had a commission in 1929 (if they were lieutenants in 1929, it would be safe to assume they were ensigns in 1923… they had two ranks to jump).
Nationality.

Why the SS Leviathan? She was the flagship of the USL fleet – at the time she was the largest, most modern ship in the US merchant fleet (but, she was built by the Germans and captured when the US joined WWI) and she had the cream of the industry aboard. The licensed officers didn’t change too much on the SS Leviathan – many of whom were there on the maiden voyage mostly stuck around through the line’s acquisition by Paul W. Chapman in 1929 and on through Roosevelt/IMM acquisition in 1931/2. Nationality is important to consider since foreigners could not join USNRF; the complaint for many was that the American Merchant Marine was crowded with foreigners. In counting the foreigners, I could determine the true number of seamen who were eligible for enrollment in USNRF.

I discovered there were 78 people who might nominally be considered officers on the SS Leviathan‘s maiden voyage (per a news item lauding them). Of those 78; only 5 of them were not U.S. citizens. And, of the remaining 73, 9 held commissions in the USNRF in 1929. The number of reservists made up 12% of the officers.

In looking at USL passenger lists from other ships, USL did denote an officer’s enrollment in USNRF correctly – except potentially in one instance, Giles Steadman; the USNRF rolls from 1926 are unavailable. On those lists, invariably only the master of the ship held a commission in the USNRF/USNR during the decade spanning 1924-1934; among those listed on the lists, that would be 20% of merchant seamen were members of USNRF during the period cited by the General.

Beyond the inaccuracy of the General’s statement, it would also be safe to assume that there is no connection between the actual numbers of USNRF officers and the cap badges worn by officers aboard USSB-owned lines; the eagle on the cap badge may very well just be an indicator of nationality as does the corona navalis for the British Mercantile Navy of the same period.

The nuance of uniforms in the American Merchant Marine is different than that found in the military. Although they share the same clothes as sailors, merchant seaman did not relish in wearing badges and patches to show how they transited through shipboard hierarchy. These hierarchies were not hard and fast. So, using a cap mark oneself is counterintuitive in a merchant marine setting.

Numbers of merchant seamen in the MMR was relatively static; these numbers are from 1934. It is of note that no men – that is non-officers enrolled.

The General would not be correct even if he said all USL ships flew the Merchant Marine Naval Reserve Flag – during this period – the flag could be flown if the commanding officer of a vessel held a commission in USNRF and 50% of the officers aboard held commissions, or if the U. S. Navy felt the ship was worthy as a naval auxiliary. Membership in the USNRF was originally one to not be handed a white feather during the First World War, it later had a mixture of patriotism, a little cash, and subsidized courses. As for the officers in the USNRF, many did not pay much attention to Naval Regulations. If they had the U.S. Naval officer cap in their wardrobe, they wore it in the course of their daily work routine. Uniform standards were set by the master of the vessel – the demand may be that officers show up in a jacket in the saloon or there may have been a devil may care attitude altogether aboard. On USL ships, only crew members who faced passengers kept up appearances on passenger liners; otherwise, those in engine spaces would wear work clothes and caps without grommets. The later could not be bothered with buttons and badges – they had real work to do.

Merchant Marine Naval Reserve Flag awardees, 1930. Ships were reviewed each year for award qualification.

Merchant Marine Naval Reserve Flag awardees, 1931

This is not to say Merchant seamen threw anything they wanted together on. On steamship lines that carried passengers, there was an assumption that the crew would have a smart appearance as one might find in a hotel – but they would be decked out in nautical uniforms. There is no bureaucratic fight on Merchant Marine uniforms of the 1920s and 1930s, and by 1929, only two USL ships ever earned the right to fly the Naval Reserve Flag by the end of 1920s by virtue of personnel count (the flag was given to ships with 50% of officers aboard holding USNRF commissions).

References

United States Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce. “Proposed Sale of Certain Ships by the United States Shipping Board
Hearing Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Commerce, United States Senate, Sixty-Ninth Congress, Second Session, Pursuant to S.Res. 294, Requesting the Shipping Board to Postpone Consummation of the Sale Or Charter of the ‘Leviathan’ and Certain Other Vessels Operated by the Board: December 13, 1926.” Washington, D. C. : GPO, 1936.

United States Congress, House, Committee on Appropriations.
“Navy Department Appropriation Bill for 1936: Hearing Before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, in Charge of Navy Department Appropriation Bill for 1936. Seventy-fourth Congress, First Session.” Washington, D.C. : G.P.O., 1935, p. 208.

United States Navy. Register of commissioned officers, cadets, midshipmen, and warrant officers of the United States Naval Reserve: January 1, 1929. Washington, D. C. : GPO, 1929.

United States Navy. Register of commissioned officers, cadets, midshipmen, and warrant officers of the United States Naval Reserve: January 1, 1930. Washington, D. C. : GPO, 1930, pp. 121-122.

United States Navy. Register of commissioned officers, cadets, midshipmen, and warrant officers of the United States Naval Reserve: January 1, 1931. Washington, D. C. : GPO, 1931, pp. 201-202.

United States National Archives and Records Administration. “Passenger and crew lists of vessels arriving at New York, 1897-1942” v. 7626-7628 Jul 20-23 1923 (NARA Series T715, Roll 3334).