Immediately after the United States formally entered the Second World War, German U-boats decimated its merchant fleet both on the open ocean and on coastwise routes. Shipyards sprang into action, and the government enticed enrollees to its training centers by calling on an individual’s patriotism. To continue and to foster momentum, United States Maritime Commission tasked itself with creating a unified iconography for the American Merchant Marine that was timely and recognizable. The challenge confronting the U. S. Maritime Commission was the American Merchant Marine lacked a unified group identity.
On the eve of the Second World War, the American people were directly benefiting from the New Deal policies of the Franklin administration. America was being put to work and coming to accept the legion of technocrats and the newly-created “alphabet agencies” in their midst. An activist federal government put oversight firmly into the national conversation. The need for government protection was voiced by business owners and workers – although with differing inflections. The latter were amenable to government oversight to protect against potential employer abuse, the former for the stability of their business interests. In the case of workers on the waterfront and aboard ships, they enjoyed new rights and protections gained by unionizing. Unions advanced the interests of workers and spoke for them as a collective – after a decade of internecine battles, unions were finally ascendant and were a force with which to reckon. Shipowners simply wanted profits.
On 7 February 1942, the Federal government created the War Shipping Administration and took formal control of all overseas shipping for use as a tool in the war effort. This control was only possible with the cooperation of both the maritime unions and the shipowners via the application of clause 101 (b) in the 1936 “Act to further the development and maintenance of an adequate and well-balanced American merchant marine, to promote the commerce of the United States, to aid in the national defense, to repeal certain former legislation, and for other purposes” (it is known by the friendlier Merchant Marine Act of 1936) – “[to serve] as a naval and military auxiliary in time of war or national emergency.” To gain Federal control of shipping, the Act provided subsidies to shipowners and long-overdue reforms for the treatment and training of merchant seamen. Within the law, and of particular importance, are the creation of the United States Maritime Commission (USMC) and the United States Maritime Service (USMS). The former was charged with shipbuilding ad design, the latter with training activities. Since training came virtually ex-nihilo, the United States Coast Guard took on the administration of the USMS; however, the USMC continued administration of an older cadet system.
The War Shipping Administration was responsible for coordinating all aspects of ship and personnel for the duration of the war; the U. S. Maritime Commission concerned itself with shipbuilding and industry relations.
The iconography for these new civilian government agencies revolved around the very staid symbols of federal authority: eagles, shields, anchors, and cables (rope). The U. S. Maritime Service adopted icons similar to that of the U.S. Coast Guard, and the U.S. Maritime Commission took a federal shield and charged it with an anchor. In 1942, the War Shipping Administration, upon its creation, adopted a simple anchor without embellishment. By 1942, USMC Cadet Corps officer-cadet cap badge became the de-facto symbol of the USMS officers and the old Coast Guard-style iconography was removed. All of these contortions in symbols were building blocks for the federal maritime establishment’s public identity, but in being federal, they were not applicable to the industry as a whole.
Since the maritime industry was a civilian endeavor, there was no concept of it as a traditional uniformed service. A uniformed service implied federal employment, civil service, or grade in the military. With the creation of the War Shipping Administration, unions such as the National Maritime Union were adamant at the time that civilians seamen remained both civilian and un-uniformed. Yet, at the same time, other seamen were perfectly amenable to wearing a uniform since it prevented them from being handed a white feather. Nevertheless, both the U. S. Maritime Commission and Congress saw the lack of an identifying emblem for the merchant seaman as problematic. Unions, not so much since they already gave their rank and file pins in the shape of ships wheels – no eagles, shields, anchors, or ropes. The issue came to the fore in 1942.
Maritime Eagle
In a nutshell, the U. S. Maritime Commission had its work cut out for it. It needed something patriotic and palatable to the public. Fortunately, a vocabulary for Victory was already in use among Allied nations of the time. From January 1941 and reaching mass appeal in July 1941, “V for Victory” was championed by the Allies as a sign of resistance and opposition to the Axis powers that had overrun most of Europe. The U. S. Maritime Commission tapped into this lexicon by inventing the “Ships for Victory insignia” – the center of which was the “Maritime Eagle” – which suited the patriotism demanded of Americans. The symbol was emblazoned on posters, pins, and flags. President Roosevelt liked it so much he had it modified and placed on a stamp a few months after its unveiling.
“The Eagle – Symbol of American Strength and Courage” in Domestic Commerce: A Weekly Bulletin of the National Economy. Vol. 29, No. 21, May 21, 1942. p. 14.
Although the description is slightly overwrought, the sentiment behind the “Maritime Eagle” was one where merchant seamen were to be seen as American patriots – wearing a symbol that stretched back to the founding of the Republic and refreshed with the then-current “V.” The individual that was responsible for the design – Mark O’Dea – was a professional advertising executive from Madison Avenue, thus the eagle’s contemporary design with hard angles and bold lettering.
Mark O’Dea “Maritime Eagle” pin patent design.
The “Maritime Eagle” was granted patent 131,446 on 17 February 1942 as a “Design for a Badge or Similar Article.” Soon thereafter, it was unveiled with the motto “Ships for Victory” and became the wartime insignia of the American Merchant Marine. At the time, 50,000 devices were made for immediate distribution to merchant seamen with the motto “U.S. Merchant Marine” with the letters “U” and “S” on wings. The pins came in silver and gold: silver for “men” and gold, officers.
Speaking on behalf of the unions, Mr. Hoyt Haddock stated the pin was an overall waste of tax-payer money and achieved nothing:
National Maritime Union displeasure with the pin was so great that leadership encouraged members not to wear it. Other unions, notably Masters, Mates, and Pilots did sport it, although below the union pin. The emblem Mr. Hoyt refers to is here.
Maritime Eagle of the U. S. Maritime Commission
The U. S. Maritime Commission issued gilded bronze “Maritime Eagle” pins with the motto “U. S. Maritime Commission” to commission functionaries. These became a compulsory item for wear on Commission lapels.
Besides the U. S. Maritime Commission pin, there are two other variations of the “Maritime Eagle” pin; they were issued from May 1942 through October 1942. In this instance, the pin was a decoration.
Maritime Eagle as a Decoration of Honor
Under a broad reading of Public Law 524 of 11 April 1942 “To provide decorations for outstanding conduct or service by persons serving in the American merchant marine” clause “or service in the line of duty,” the U. S. Maritime Commission endeavored to award merchant seamen for meritorious service or surviving a torpedoing. The first award went to a ship’s officer:
Capt. Olaf Ekstrom, Union Oil Co. tanker skipper. The presentation took place at a Maritime Day luncheon at the San Francisco Commercial club. The Eagle is the federal government’s recognition of meritorious service. The emblem is an American Eagle with wings upraised in the shape of the United Nations Victory “V”. The background is an anchor with the inscription “Ships For Victory.”
San Pedro News Pilot (San Pedro, California). Volume 15, Number 68, May 23, 1942.
The second award occurred on 1 June 1942 with the seaman John N. Kelly of Hillside, New Jersey as the awardee.
Mr. Kelly’s award was the second variation of the pin – it was the “Maritime Eagle” with an enamel scroll superimposed on a wreath. This award had two variations: Sterling silver for “men” and gilded bronze for officers.
These decorations by the U. S. Maritime Commission were detailed in testimony by Admiral Arthur P. Fairfield, the chairman of the Merchant Marine Medals Award Committee of the War Shipping Administration on 30 September 1942 as part of the debate around H. R. 7548 “Recognition of American Merchant Seamen.” The House Resolution wished to provide merchant seamen with an emblem or device to recognize their service to the country and when Admiral Fairfield divulged the pin marked “duty [done] exceptionally well [or] outstanding performance of duty,” the Congressmen on panel running the debate balked. The pin had become an award of merit, and the Admiral admitted the Commission was “doing administratively what Congress should do.” As a note on the Admiral’s position – despite the legislation alluded to above of April 1942 – the U. S. Maritime Commission had awarded no medals at the time of his testimony.
After the chilly response from both Congress and the unions regarding the pin, pin as an award ceased. After October 1942, the remaining stocks of these pins had the wreaths removed as the War Shipping Administration created a Torpedoed Seaman’s Club; it had as its insignia a ribbon with a silver star for each survived sinking. And for distinguished service, the Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal had its first award. Going forward, the pins were no longer awards, but emblems of belonging for the brave few who sailed the waves – at least until May 1943, when the Merchant Mariner Identification badge was written into law at every party’s satisfaction: Congress, Labor, and the War Shipping Administration. After this date, the “Maritime Eagle” no longer resided on the merchant seaman’s lapel.
Maritime Eagle and Shipyard Labor
As a personal tribute to Admiral Land, and his “over a million” co-workers in the Maritime Commission and the shipyards and factories throughout the United States, the noted cartoonist, C. K. Berryman presents his comments and his compliments on Victory Fleet Day, September 27, 1943.
In addition to marking merchant seamen with a distinguishing pin, the U. S. Maritime Commission also used the “Maritime Eagle” on badges disbursed at shipyards for workers and for shipyard merit awards or “Labor Merit Badge.” President Franklin Roosevelt introduced the shipyard “Maritime Eagle” badge on the eve of Maritime Day on 21 May 1942 – the first wartime observance of the day. In his address on Maritime Day, he conveyed his support for the merchant seaman and the shipyard worker; in a show of solidarity, he wore the newly-created shipyard badge on his lapel – it was described as a Victory Fleet badge, “[consisting] of a silver eagle with its wings upthrust in Victory “V” form, perched on a blue anchor against a red background. The slogan reads: ‘Ships for Victory.'” The badge itself was red and flanking the wings were thirteen stars. An estimated 1,100,000 of these badges made their way to shipyard and factory workers who supported building the fleet.
The “Labor Merit Badge” was first awarded in July 1942. The insignia was presented at the same time as a yard or factory earned the U. S. Maritime Commission “M” burgee (or pennant). The ceremony usually included the presentation of the “Maritime flag” – a flag with the “Maritime Eagle” ringed by thirteen stars. The awardee gained the right to flag the burgee for six months, after which the U. S. Maritime Commission analyzed production and determined if the burgee could continue being flown – with each extension, the Commission added a gold star to the flag. By war’s end, 35 shipyards and 175 factories flew the burgee and flag.
References
Office of War Information. OWI-703, October 24, 1942.
United States, House. Hearings Cong. 77 sess. 2 Merchant Marine &Fisheries v. 2 1942. G. P, O., Washington D. C., 1942.
Hillside Times (Hillside, New Jersey). Vol XVIII, No. 922, Tuesday, June 2, 1942.
San Pedro News Pilot (San Pedro, California). Volume 15, Number 68, May 23, 1942.
“The Eagle – Symbol of American Strength and Courage” in Domestic Commerce: A Weekly Bulletin of the National Economy. Vol. 29, No. 21, May 21, 1942. p. 14.
Frederic Chapin Lane. Ships for Victory: A History of Shipbuilding Under the U.S. Maritime Commission in World War II. John Hopkins University Press, 1951.
Franklin D. Roosevelt. “The President’s Statement on Maritime Day” in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: F.D. Roosevelt, 1942, Volume 11. Best Books, 1950, p. 246-247.